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Water Scarcity & GroundwaterPlenty of Rivers, Not Enough Water

India has great rivers and good rain, yet hundreds of millions face water stress and groundwater keeps falling. This page explains the groundwater crisis, why scarcity persists, and how science, technology and better management can fix it.

Groundwater85%Rural demand

met by groundwater.

CGWB1,034Over-exploited units

of 6,584 assessed by CGWB.

Decline61%Wells with falling levels

decadal average, 2009-18.

Share4%World's water

for 18% of its people.

Stress600 millionHigh to extreme stress

Indians, per NITI Aayog.

Per capita1,545 m³Water per person, 2011

down from 1,820 in 2001.

Part 1 · Decreasing ground water

India's Falling Groundwater

Groundwater meets most of rural India's needs and most of its irrigation, and in a growing number of blocks more is pumped out than the rain puts back.

Illustration of a cross-section of the ground below an Indian village, showing a tubewell reaching down to a shrinking aquifer

Decreasing ground water

Groundwater is the water present beneath Earth's surface in soil pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formations.
Groundwater plays an important part in India's economy. It caters to about 85% of rural demand, 50% urban requirements and more than 60 per cent of our irrigation needs.
Net Annual Ground Water Availability: 411 bcm, and the Stage of Ground Water Development: 62%.
India uses the largest amount of groundwater but is also the third largest exporter of groundwater.
In decadal average for 2009-18, there has been a decline in the groundwater level in 61% of wells monitored by the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB).

Units assessed by the Central Ground Water Board

Out of total 6584 Units (Blocks/ Mandals/ Firka/Taluks) assessed by Central Ground Water Board:

Category	Units	Meaning
Critical	253	The stage of ground water development is above 90% and within 100% of net annual ground water availability and significant decline is observed in the long-term water level trend.
Over-Exploited	1,034	The annual ground water extraction exceeds the net annual ground water availability and significant decline in long term ground water level trend.

Example: 'Stage of groundwater development' is like a bank balance: it compares what is withdrawn in a year with what the rain deposits. At 62% India as a whole is in credit, but a block at over 100% is spending its savings, and its water table keeps falling.

Part 2 · Issues with ground water

Overuse and Contamination of Groundwater

Unregulated pumping dries aquifers in the north-west, while fluoride, arsenic, nitrate, iron, uranium and salt make much of what remains unsafe.

Issues with ground water

Unregulated groundwater extraction has led to overuse in many parts of the country, causing the groundwater table to plummet, drying springs and aquifers.
The effects on ground water in different regions of the country have not been uniform.
- The situation is alarming in regions where groundwater exploitation exceeds replenishment. States like Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan now draw more water than is annually replenished. Several places in Rajasthan and Haryana have high salt concentration in groundwater, which makes it not potable.

Ground water pollution: fluoride

High concentration of fluoride in ground water is beyond the permissible limit of 1.5 mg/L. Excess fluoride causes neuro-muscular disorders, gastro-intestinal problems, teeth deformity, hardening of bones, and skeletal fluorosis.

Issues in tackling groundwater contamination and pollution

Inadequacies in monitoring groundwater quality:
- It is primarily the concern of the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) and state groundwater agencies.
- However, there are only a few observation stations in the country that cover all the essential parameters for water quality and hence the data obtained are not decisive on the water quality status. Further, the monitoring ability is doubtful as the agencies lack adequate staff to carry out its functions.
- There are problems associated with institutional design itself. The SPCBs perform the dual functions of monitoring pollution and enforcing pollution control norms. This creates a disincentive for them to perform the first function meaningfully.
Lack of effective enforcement of pollution control norms, due to the fact that cost of pollution is much less than the cost of treatment works as a disincentive for polluters.
The decentralized nature of Ground water use makes it hard to keep a check on over exploitations and pollution of ground water. Though de jure rights in groundwater are not clear, land owners enjoy de facto right to extract groundwater under their land.

Part 4 · Why India still suffers from water scarcity

Why India Still Runs Short of Water

A growing population, pollution, over-pumping, poor management, uneven rain, thirsty crops and climate change together turn plenty into scarcity.

The Composite Water Management Index by NITI Aayog

Nearly 600 million Indians face “high to extreme water stress” and 75% households do not have drinking water on their premises. 81.67% of rural households do not have tap water connections.
India's annual per capita availability of water fell from 1,820 cubic meters in 2001 to 1,545 cubic meters in 2011, which may further fall to 1,341 cubic meters in 2025.
- By CWC benchmarks, a water-stressed condition happens when per capita availability is less than 1,700 cubic metres, and
- a water-scarcity condition when per capita availability falls below 1,000 cubic metres.
- This is against the rising water demand in the country, which is likely to double by 2030.

Per capita water availability (cubic metres a year)

20011,820 m³
20111,545 m³
2025 (projected)1,341 m³

The reasons for water scarcity

Population

One of the reasons for water scarcity is the huge and growing population.
- In 1951, 3000-4000 cubic meters per person per year water was available. Currently, it is only around 1500 cubic meters per person per year.

Water pollution

Another reason is the poor water quality resulting from insufficient and delayed investment in urban water treatment facilities. Water in most rivers in India is not fit for drinking.
- Most water sources are contaminated by sewage and agricultural runoff.
- The facilities created for water treatment are not maintained properly because adequate fees are not charged for water supply.
- Industrial effluent standards are not enforced because the state pollution control boards have inadequate technical and human resources.
- By some estimates almost 70% of drinking water is contaminated.

Over extraction of ground water

Another problem is dwindling groundwater supplies due to over extraction by farmers.
Low costs charged for irrigation facilities by State Governments also means that there is inefficient and wasteful use of water for irrigation by farmers. There is a need to increase irrigated area further, but this has to be done by increasing efficiency of irrigation.

Poor management

India's urban areas also have poor and leaky distribution networks leading to water waste. We have a lack of sustainable water management policies in any of the governments along with a lack of public investment in the same.
Due to inefficient irrigation techniques and small land holdings for agriculture.
Most of the water planning and development in the country has been done as per administrative boundaries rather than by using river basins as the hydrological unit.
- This has led to water conflict as most river basins are shared by several states and water demand for meeting domestic, industrial and agricultural needs within each state has gone up significantly.
- In the absence of river basin management plans and active river basin authorities, these issues have intensified.
In India, water governance is fragmented which leads to inconsistent water policy between the Union and states.

Skewed distribution

Regions such as Rajasthan, Vidarbha, Marathwada and other parts of central and North-West India, receive relatively less rainfall as compared to other parts of the country. These regions are also devoid of perennial rivers.
India experiences both floods and droughts periodically. Nearly a third of the country's geographical area is drought-prone whereas 12 per cent of the area is prone to floods.

Virtual export of water

India is virtually exporting water by growing highly water intensive crops like rice, sugarcane and soybean and exporting them to countries like China.
The water scarce regions (like Punjab) are involved in growing water intensive crops.

Policies favouring thirsty crops

The agriculture policies are heavily favored towards growing water intensive crops (like paddy). Dry land farming is largely neglected.
- Government policies such as free electricity and minimum support price (MSP) for water intensive crops has nudged the farmers into choosing unsustainable irrigation techniques.
- 90% of ground water extracted is used in irrigation sector followed by domestic use and industrial use (9.8%).

Other causes

Uncontrolled deforestation, encroachment in wetlands etc.
Lack of recycling capacity for used water and low emphasis on water treatment and reuse along with dumping of municipal and industrial waste in water bodies has led to reduction in input to water sources.
Low awareness about rain water harvesting, water usage efficiency coupled with increasing purchasing power of people has increased demand leading to magnification of the problem.
Climate change increases incidences of droughts and reduce annual precipitation in drought prone central and North West India.
- The effect of global warming further intensifies temporal and spatial variations in precipitation, melting of snow and water availability.

Seasonal rivers and uneven rain

Significant number of non-perennial (seasonal) rivers which depend upon monsoon.
- Even in the area with perennial river, the water availability in the river is fluctuating throughout the year. During monsoon the abundant rainfall in a short period of around three months and lean period rest of the time.
Spatial variance in the amount of precipitation received. Numerous local factors play a role in bringing downpour which results in some receiving abundant rainfall and the other being water scarce.

Example: Virtual water is the water used to grow a product. A tonne of rice exported from Punjab carries with it the groundwater pumped to grow it, so a water-scarce state ends up shipping its scarcest resource abroad.

Part 5 · The role of scientific management and technology

Science and Technology for Water

Mapping, sensors, micro-irrigation, desalination, bioremediation, forecasting and data can stretch every drop and raise the water table.

Scientific management

National Water Policy, 2012 has laid emphasis on periodic assessment of ground water resources on scientific basis.
Under Jal Jeevan Mission to provide functional household Tap Connection (FHTC) to every rural household, there is provision for technological intervention for treatment to make water potable.
The role of GIS and the internet in increasing transparency and participation.
- This in turn can facilitate monitoring and control, a classic sign of ‘healthy’ water management systems, which makes water managers and users mutually accountable.
“Grey” strategies: manmade, technology-based measures like wastewater treatment and desalination.
- Cape Town avoided “Day Zero” through a combination of largely grey strategies.

Technologies that help

Satellites

Space satellites used for water resource mapping.

Biotechnology

Bio-technology to grow dry-land crops. It can also help in reducing the need of fertilizer which is a major cause of pollution.

Internet and computers

Internet and computer technology to disseminate the information and creating awareness.

On-farm water management

Improvements in on-farm management of agricultural water, both through utilization of advanced irrigation technology and improved irrigation scheduling, e.g. drip irrigation and sprinkler technology.

Desalination

Sea water desalination: Israel uses it. Graphene filter to make it cheaper to drink seawater.

Purifiers

RO water purifier.

Smart farm water

Agricultural water usage can become “smarter,” however, by using sensors to measure rainfall and soil moisture to avoid overwatering plants. Soil composition can determine water retention and is affected by the types of plants.

Bioremediation

Bio-remediation of waste water to make it reusable.

Artificial rain

Technology can be used for artificial rain in the area with water scarcity.

River linking

River linking project can be considered based on forecasting its impact.

Supercomputers

Super-computers help in weather prediction (climate modeling) and appropriate change in the cropping decision.

Water metering

Water metering can be used to effectively charge the water usage.

Data analytics

Data analytics can be used for the future demand and supply of water.

Renewable energy

Technologies for renewable energy can reduce the global warming which in turn will reduce the erratic rainfall and check the sea level rise.

Geology

Knowledge of geology helped us in knowing the underlying reason behind the arsenic and uranium contamination of ground water in Bihar.

Hydrology

Hydrology helps us understand the natural process of water cycling and monsoon which helps us in maintaining the natural flow or be prepared for the upcoming situation, e.g. understanding the El Niño Southern Oscillation helps us to be prepared for the drought condition in the country and making appropriate changes in policies.

IoT sensors

IoT and its use of sensors to intelligently monitor usage is helping reduce water consumption: it measures water saturation in the soil, manages irrigation and helps ensure water isn't overused on its crops.

Drones

Drones aiding water preservation: e.g. map the vegetation on an entire site in an afternoon. The aim is to understand the trajectory of climatic variation across these different sites and how they can be linked to changes in the water resources as well as drought.

Near-waterless laundry

Another innovative water saving technology is Hydrofinity's near-waterless laundry system. The Hydrofinity laundry system replaces up to 80% of the water used in traditional washing systems with polymer XOrbs that gently massage textiles to provide superior cleaning results as compared to conventional aqueous washing methods.

Part 7 · Government steps

Laws, Policies and Missions for Water

From the Water Act and the National Water Policy to artificial recharge, aquifer mapping, river clean-up, Jal Shakti Abhiyan, Jal Jeevan Mission and Atal Bhujal Yojana.

Government steps

Water Pollution Control Act mandated to maintain water quality and restore the wholesomeness of national aquatic resources by preventing pollution.
National Water Policy 2012 (NWP) made several recommendations for conservation, development and improved management of water resources in the country.
- NWP stresses that “low consciousness about the overall scarcity and economic value of water results in the wastage and inefficient uses”.
Central Ground Water Board (CGWB), under Ministry of Jal Shakti is the National Apex Agency entrusted with the responsibilities of providing scientific inputs for management, exploration, monitoring, assessment, augmentation and regulation of ground water resources of the country.
Draft River Basin Management Bill, 2018 was released by government for seeking comments and suggestions of stakeholders.

Efforts to control the ground water pollution:

“A Master Plan for Artificial Recharge of Groundwater” has been developed by the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) in 2013. According to this plan, over 85 billion cubic metres will be recharged in rural and urban areas in a phased manner by 2023.
India has several legislations and programmes to protect groundwater. Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974; Environmental Protection Act, 1986; the creation of Arsenic task force in West Bengal in 2005 and the launch of Salinity Ingress Prevention Scheme in Gujarat in 2008 are a few such Acts and programmes.
In 2016, the Union government launched the National Project on Aquifer Management. The project proposes to cover 1.4 million sq km under aquifer mapping between 2017 and 2022.

The road ahead

Consumption of water would escalate further with pressure from industrialisation and urbanisation. It has been estimated that by 2050, more than half of India or an estimated 800 million people will be living in urban India. Most urban areas will have to import water from further distances unless measures are taken to improve water use efficiency, reduce leakages, adoption of appropriate water tariff, rehabilitate and recharge local water bodies considering many parts of rural and urban areas suffer from insufficient water for daily use.

“Low consciousness about the overall scarcity and economic value of water results in the wastage and inefficient uses.”

— National Water Policy, 2012

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